USE SIMPLE AND ACCURATE LANGUAGE
DO
Use simpler words unless they lack precision. [2]
- For example, “use” instead of “utilize,” “support” instead of “substantiate,” “agree” instead of “in accordance with,” etc.
Understand the difference between “between” and “among.”
Use “between” for two things.
Use “among” for three or more things.
Understand the difference between “fewer” and “less.”
Use the word “fewer” when you are describing a discrete quantity.
There are fewer participants in Study 1 than Study 2.Use the word “less” when you are describing a continuous quantity.
There is less water in solution A than solution B.
DON'T
Don’t use “who” and “whom” to refer to animals; use those terms only for people.
Don’t use “though” as the informal short form of “although.” [2]
USE DIRECT STATEMENTS AND AVOID AMBIGUITY
DO
Use the active voice whenever possible. [6]
NO: “It was observed that the solution turned red.”
YES: “The solution turned red.”
YES: “We observed that the solution turned red.”
- NO: The force is counteracted by gravity.
- YES: Gravity acts to counteract the force.
Think carefully about where you place the word “only” in a sentence. "Only" should be placed as close as possible to the word or phrase that it modifies.
For example: “I only study at the library” means you do not do anything other than study at the library (“only” modifies “study”). “I study only at the library” means you do not study anywhere else (“only” modifies “at the library”).
Compare the two statements below:
“This asymmetry could mean that only one active site has optimal contacts to the ATP×Mg2+ …”
“This asymmetry could only mean that one active site has optimal contacts to the ATP×Mg2+ …”In the first example, which is from Procko et al. (2006), the authors explain that the asymmetry might mean that there is just one rather than many active sites with optimal contacts. In the second example, which is not actually in the article, the authors would appear to be expressing with great confidence that there is just one explanation for what the asymmetry means.
DON'T
Don’t use the word “this” without a noun following it. The referent must always be clear. [6]
- NO: “This leads us to conclude”
- YES: “This observation leads us to conclude”
Don’t leave comparisons incomplete. [6]
- NO: “The yield was higher using bromine.”
- YES: “The yield was higher using bromine than chlorine.”
Don't use the word “very” because “very” is not quantifiable. [5]
Don't use the word "attempts” because it makes it sound as if you are uncertain about what you are doing. [5]
- In research papers, you do things. “You might be more or less successful at doing those things, but don't weasel-word it.”
AVOID USING BELIEFS, EXAGGERATIONS, OR QUOTES TO PERSUADE
DON'T
Don’t quote unless you absolutely need to capture an author’s words exactly.
- Examples of the rare occasions when you might quote include when you need to provide a precise definition or you need to document a provocative statement or a specific interpretation that you intend to challenge. [See: Paraphrasing]
Don’t use the word “prove.” [2]
- In science, you cannot “prove” a hypothesis. You are testing hypotheses, and the data either support or do not support the hypothesis.
Don’t editorialize or use emotionally-laden terms; instead, let the facts you present speak for themselves. [2]
NO: The author’s claim is ridiculous.
YES: The findings were not significant and, thus, do not support the author’s claim.
NO: Unfortunately, the two groups were not significantly different.
YES: The two groups were not significantly different.
AVOID PERSONALIZATION & PERSONIFICATION
DON'T
Don’t use metaphors or flowery language that might obscure what you mean and confuse the reader.
NO: If the object is denser than the medium, it sinks like a stone. If it is less dense than the medium, it rises like a balloon.
YES: “The object sinks down if it is denser than the medium, and rises up if it is less dense.” [6]
Don’t personify molecules or cells.
NO: The ligand grabs hold of the receptor.
YES: The ligand binds with the receptor.
NO: The growth factor tells the cell to divide.
YES: The binding of the growth factor initiates cell division.
Don’t use the possessive case when referring to molecules or cells.
NO: the gene’s sequence; the protein’s structure
YES: the gene sequence; the protein structure
PRESENT ACCURATE, SPECIFIC, AND QUANTIFIABLE INFORMATION
DO
Use the word “significantly" only when you mean it in the true statistical sense. [4]
- If you do mean statistically significant, then you need to back it up quantitatively.
Use “I” for a single authored work and “we” for two or more authors. [5]
Define all acronyms and symbols the first time you use them. [4]
- After they are defined, use only the acronyms and symbols for the rest of your paper.
Make sure that all numbers have units. [4]
Be consistent when reporting quantities throughout your paper. [4]
- For example, do not present an exact version of a quantity in one place and then round that same quantity to the nearest 100 in another place.
DON'T
Don’t use the word “insignificant” to describe a finding that was not statistically significant.
- Instead, write that the finding was “not significant.”
USE CORRECT FORMATTING & PARTS OF SPEECH
DO
Spell out numbers under 10 except when it is a number with unit.
- YES: Model variables fell into four major groups.
- YES: Cells were incubated in blocking buffer for 2 hr.
Spell out any number that is at the start of a sentence. [2]
- YES: Twenty-four participants completed the survey.
- YES: “Five mM EDTA was added to the buffers.”
*Note: This second example looks a bit awkward, so when you have a number with a unit, it’s better to find a way to rephrase the sentence so that it does not start with the number. For example, “EDTA (5 mM) was added to the buffers.”
Use correct formatting when writing out scientific names.
- Scientific names of organisms are composed of two words: a genus name and a species epithet. The genus name is always capitalized, and the species epithet is never capitalized. Both words are italicized. For example, Homo sapiens, Cavia porcellus, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Toxicodendron radicans.
DON'T
Don’t use the “editorial we” to refer to people in general; instead specify the meaning of “we.”
- NO: “When we have a growth mindset …”
- YES: “When college students have a growth mindset …”
Don’t use “we” to avoid using “I” to refer to yourself.
- YES: Use “I” if you are the only author on the paper. “I hypothesized that …”
- YES: Use “we” in your papers if you are referring to you and your collaborators. “We investigated the behavior …”
Don’t use nouns as adjectives. [6]
- NO: “ATP formation; reaction product”
- YES: “formation of ATP; product of the reaction”
SOURCES REFERENCED ON THIS PAGE:
Carson, S. H., Fama, J., Clancy, K, Ebert, J., & Tierney, A. (2012). Writing for psychology: A guide for psychology concentrators. Harvard University.
Gaudet, R. (n.d.). General writing advice [Course handout]. Harvard University.
Hoffman, J. E. (2019). How to write a paper and format it using LaTex [Course handout]. Harvard University.
Morris, J., Jehn, T, Vaughan, C., Pantages, E., Torello, T., Bucheli, M., Lohman, D., Lue, R. (2007). A student’s guide to writing in the life sciences (2nd ed.). Harvard University.
Seltzer, M. (n.d.). 101 (or thereabouts) of Margo's pet peeves in the writing of research papers. http://www.eecs.harvard.edu/margo/writing.html
Whitesides, G. M. (2004). Whitesides’ group. Writing a Paper. Advanced Materials, 16(15), 1375-1377.